Mushroom-based meat analogues

Methodology and research design

The research employed a textual narrative synthesis approach adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Following a comprehensive literature search across multiple databases including Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, the investigators identified 433 initial publications. After rigorous screening based on predetermined inclusion criteria – relevancy to mushroom meat analogues, publication in English, and publication dates between 1994 and 2023 – 38 studies were selected for detailed analysis (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

The review examined mushrooms from the Basidiomycota and Ascomycota phyla, including commonly cultivated species such as Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom), Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom), Lentinula edodes (shiitake), and Flammulina velutipes (enoki). These species were assessed for their incorporation into various meat analogue formats including burgers, sausages, frankfurters, and nuggets.

Physical and textural properties

The incorporation of mushroom powder significantly influenced the colour parameters of meat analogues, predominantly affecting lightness (L*) values. Most studies reported decreased lightness with mushroom addition, attributed to several mechanisms including polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity, Maillard reactions during cooking, and the intrinsic colour of mushroom species (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Patinho et al., 2019). For instance, adding 15–30% A. bisporus to beef burgers resulted in decreased lightness whilst increasing red (a*) and yellow (b*) values (Patinho et al., 2019).

Textural analyses using texture profile analysers revealed variable effects depending on mushroom species and concentration. Generally, mushroom addition at higher concentrations reduced hardness and chewiness in meat products due to elevated water content and dietary fibre interference with protein–protein gel bonds (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2019). However, certain species such as Boletus edulis and Cantharellus cibarius enhanced textural properties, demonstrating the importance of species-specific selection (Novakovic et al., 2020).

Organoleptic characteristics and consumer acceptance

Sensory evaluations employing hedonic scales (typically 5-, 7-, or 9-point scales) demonstrated mixed outcomes for taste, aroma, texture, and overall acceptability. The review found that moderate mushroom incorporation generally enhanced sensory attributes, whilst excessive concentrations could overpower other flavours (Fetriyuna et al., 2025). For example, 0.75% B. edulis addition to beef frankfurters improved taste and overall acceptability, whereas 1.5% addition decreased these parameters (Novakovic et al., 2020).

The enhancement of umami flavour in mushroom-enriched products was attributed to high levels of free amino acids, particularly glutamate, alongside nucleotides that mimic monosodium glutamate effects (Cheung, 2009; Das et al., 2021). Additionally, volatile compounds generated through Maillard reactions between amino acids and reducing sugars during cooking contributed to desirable aroma profiles (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

Amino acid profile and protein quality

Analysis of essential and non-essential amino acids revealed complex patterns influenced by production methods (substitution versus addition) and mushroom species. When mushrooms were added to meat formulations (rather than substituting meat), increases in amino acid content were generally observed due to proteolytic enzymes naturally present in mushrooms, which hydrolyse meat proteins into free amino acids (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2019).

For instance, incorporation of 2.5–5.0% F. velutipes into pork sausage increased all measured amino acid levels, including essential amino acids such as lysine, valine, and leucine (Wang et al., 2019). Conversely, direct substitution of meat with mushrooms, particularly at higher percentages, often resulted in decreased amino acid concentrations, reflecting the generally lower protein content of mushrooms compared to beef (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

Dietary fibre enhancement

One of the most consistent findings across reviewed studies was the substantial increase in dietary fibre content with mushroom incorporation. This enhancement stems from mushrooms’ high levels of polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and lignin, predominantly comprising insoluble dietary fibre such as chitin and β-glucan (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2022).

Dramatic increases were documented: substituting chicken frankfurter meat with 6% Pleurotus sajor-caju powder elevated dietary fibre from 0.08% to 6.20% (Rosli et al., 2015). Similarly, 50% substitution in beef patties increased fibre content from 1.90% to 4.90% (Rosli et al., 2011). Given that conventional beef contains negligible dietary fibre, these findings underscore mushrooms’ potential to address nutritional deficiencies, particularly for populations facing challenges such as stunting (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

Functional properties and storage stability

Beyond nutritional composition, mushroom incorporation enhanced several functional properties critical to meat analogue quality. The review highlighted improvements in water-holding capacity (WHC) and oil retention, attributed to mushrooms’ high fibre content, which effectively binds moisture (Das et al., 2021; Fetriyuna et al., 2025). Enhanced WHC contributed to improved juiciness and reduced cooking loss, thereby maintaining product yield and sensory appeal.

Moreover, mushrooms’ natural antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds – particularly phenolic compounds – inhibited lipid oxidation and microbial proliferation during refrigerated storage (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Verma et al., 2023). Studies on chevon nuggets demonstrated that mushroom extract incorporation significantly reduced peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values while restricting microbial growth, without compromising pH, water activity, or sensory characteristics (Verma et al., 2023).

Environmental sustainability considerations

The review contextualised mushroom-based meat analogues within broader sustainability frameworks, noting their substantially lower environmental impact compared to conventional meat production. Mushroom-based products demonstrated carbon footprints of 1.62–1.8 kg CO₂ equivalent per kilogram, compared to 5.2–5.82 kg for chicken and 27.3 kg for beef (Fetriyuna et al., 2025; Smetana et al., 2021). Similarly, land and energy requirements for mushroom meat analogues (3.3–3.6 m²/kg and 16.4–19.9 MJ/kg, respectively) were markedly lower than those for animal protein sources (Smetana et al., 2021).

These findings align with growing consumer demand for sustainable protein alternatives driven by concerns about food security, health, and environmental impact (Fetriyuna et al., 2025). The projected shortfall between Indonesian meat production and consumption – estimated to reach 612,707 tonnes by 2027 – further underscores the urgency of developing viable protein alternatives (Tenrisanna & Kasim, 2020).

Challenges and optimisation strategies

Despite promising results, the review identified several challenges requiring further investigation. The optimal mushroom concentration must balance nutritional enhancement with sensory acceptability; excessive levels can produce overly soft textures and dominant mushroom flavours that detract from meat-like characteristics (Fetriyuna et al., 2025). Additionally, variations in amino acid profiles between mushroom species necessitate careful selection to achieve desired nutritional outcomes.

The researchers emphasised that successful meat analogue development requires consideration of multiple factors including mushroom species selection, processing techniques, and the strategic use of food additives such as binding agents (wheat gluten, methylcellulose), flavour enhancers (yeast extract), and colourants (beet juice, lycopene) to optimise both functionality and consumer appeal (Fetriyuna et al., 2025). Texture modulation through ingredients like polysaccharides from starches and flours can enhance structural stability whilst minimising cooking losses.

Conclusions and future directions

The systematic review by Fetriyuna and colleagues (2025) establishes mushrooms as valuable functional ingredients for plant-based meat analogues, offering significant nutritional advantages – particularly enhanced dietary fibre and beneficial amino acid profiles – alongside desirable sensory properties. The natural umami compounds, antioxidant capacity, and structural characteristics of mushrooms make them particularly suitable for sustainable protein product development (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

However, the authors note that standardised processing protocols and robust regulatory frameworks remain underdeveloped, potentially hindering market expansion. Future research should focus on optimising mushroom concentrations for specific product formats, investigating synergistic combinations with other plant proteins, and developing processing techniques that maximise nutritional retention whilst achieving meat-like textural and sensory properties (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

The review concludes by highlighting mushrooms’ potential to address nutritional challenges in vulnerable populations, particularly children experiencing stunting, through therapeutic food formulations. By combining mushrooms with other locally available and underutilised commodities, food manufacturers could diversify product portfolios whilst contributing to sustainable food systems and improved public health outcomes (Fetriyuna et al., 2025).

Dario Dongo

Photo by Timothy Dykes on Unsplash

References

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